# Naga Hills

> Not one people with many dialects — many peoples on one ridge, who had to invent a creole to talk to each other.

The Naga Hills hold sixteen-plus major communities whose languages are mutually unintelligible, whose villages were independent polities, and whose textiles function as a legible record of what a wearer has done. Angami, Ao, Sumi, Lotha, Konyak, Chakhesang, Phom, Rengma, Zeliang, Tangkhul and others are separate peoples, not variants of one. What they share is a technology set — the morung dormitory, the log drum, the back-strap loom, the Feast of Merit, the mithun as the unit of wealth — and a kitchen built on smoke, fermentation and almost no oil. The link language, Nagamese, is a creole with an Assamese vocabulary that nobody speaks as a mother tongue and almost everybody uses.

- Source: https://bharatsangraha.com/regions/naga-hills
- Language: en
- Tier 1 macro cultural realm: Northeast Hill Massif
- Tier 2 cultural region: Naga Hills
- Indigenous scope: The Patkai ridge system east of the Brahmaputra trough and west of the Chindwin — a north-south grain of parallel ranges rising from about 300 m at the foothill edge to Saramati at 3,841 m, cut by the Dhansiri, Doyang, Dikhu, Tizu and Barak headwaters. The boundary is drawn by two things that agree with each other: where the foothill sal forest gives way to steep terrace-and-jhum slope, and where a village stops understanding the village on the next spur. There is no single Naga language and never was one, so the region cannot be defined by speech alone; it is defined by the ridge, by the village-as-republic that the ridge produced, and by a shared institutional grammar — the morung, the Feast of Merit, the mithun as wealth, and a shawl that has to be earned before it can be worn.
- Overlapping administrative units: Nagaland, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Myanmar
- Tier 3 micro-regions: Angami–Chakhesang Uplands (High temperate ridge, 1,400–3,000 m); Ao & Sumi Central Belt (Mid-altitude ridge and river valley, 700–1,800 m); Konyak Northern Ridges (Lower, hotter northern ranges, 200–1,500 m); Tangkhul Highlands (Southern high ridge and lily meadow, 900–2,800 m)
- Languages: Ao, Angami (Tenyidie), Sumi, Lotha, Konyak, Chokri and Khezha (Chakhesang), Tangkhul, Nagamese, English

## Terrain and eco-zones

Monsoon subtropical grading to temperate with altitude. Rainfall runs 2,000–2,500 mm, almost all of it between May and September, and it falls on slopes steep enough that soil moves with it — which is the engineering problem every farming system here answers. Kohima at 1,450 m sits between about 4 °C on a January night and 30 °C in July; the Konyak ridges to the north are several degrees warmer and much more humid; Dzukou and Japfü hold frost and occasional snow.

**Landforms:** Parallel north-south ridges of the Patkai and Barail systems, folded and steeply dipping, Saramati, 3,841 m, the highest point, standing on the frontier watershed, Japfü, 3,048 m, above Kohima, Dzukou Valley, a bowl at about 2,450 m carpeted in dwarf bamboo, Contour terrace staircases at Khonoma, Kigwema and through the Chakhesang uplands, Jhum slopes on a rotation that has shortened from twenty years to under ten in most areas

**Rivers and waters:** Doyang — the Lotha country river, dammed at Wokha for hydro and now a raptor roost, Dikhu — the Ao and Konyak drainage, running north-west into the Brahmaputra system, Dhansiri — the western river, connecting Dimapur to the plains, Tizu and Zungki — running east into the Chindwin, and therefore into Myanmar, Barak headwaters — rising in the Tangkhul and Zeliang country and turning south-west

- **Cold dry season** (November–February, 4–24 °C): The festival and travel window. Harvest is in, granaries are full, meat is smoked, and the big calendar events — Tokhu Emong, Ngada, the Hornbill Festival, Sekrenyi — fall here.
- **Pre-monsoon** (March–April, 12–30 °C): Jhum fields are cut, dried and burnt; the sowing festivals — Aoleang, Monyu — mark the end of that work. Haze from the burns can close the Dimapur runway.
- **Monsoon** (May–September, 18–30 °C): Landslides close hill roads without notice and the Dzukou trek becomes a leech field. Moatsu and Tuluni fall in this stretch, both marking the gap between sowing and harvest.
- **Post-monsoon** (October, 15–28 °C): Clearest skies of the year, and the Amur falcon passage over Doyang.

**Best time to visit:** October to April. December for the Hornbill Festival at Kisama, with the caveat that it is a curated showcase and not a village calendar event. June and July for the Dzukou lily, if the trek is the point. Non-residents need an Inner Line Permit for Nagaland, and separately for the hill districts of Manipur.

## History

## Foodways

A kitchen with almost no oil in it. Meat is smoked over the hearth until it is dry and dark, vegetables and meat are boiled together in one pot, and flavour is supplied by three fermented things — soybean, yam leaf and bamboo shoot — plus raw chilli eaten alongside rather than cooked in. There is no dry-spice masala tradition: no turmeric-cumin-coriander base, no browning of onions, no thickening. What a plains cook achieves with fat and ground spice, a Naga cook achieves with smoke and controlled rot. Because there is no fat to carry capsaicin around the mouth, the raja mircha is usually eaten in bites on the side, where the eater controls the dose.

**Primary cooking medium:** Rendered pork fat, released by the meat itself in the pot, Perilla seed, roasted and pounded, used as a fat and thickener at once, Mustard oil, only in the foothill towns and only recently, No added fat at all in the everyday boiled pot

**Dominant sour agents:** Fermented bamboo shoot and the liquor it sits in, Tree tomato, which is sub-acid and doubles as a chutney base, Wild lemon and hill citrus, Roselle-type sour leaves grown at the edge of the jhum plot, Tomato, recently and mostly in town cooking

**Spice register:** Heat and aroma, no masala. The heat is raja mircha — the king chilli, Naga mircha, the same fruit Assam calls bhut jolokia — used whole, roasted or raw. The aroma comes from leaves rather than seeds: culantro, fish mint, Sichuan-pepper leaf and berry, wild garlic and perilla. Set against Assam next door, which builds on mustard oil and panch phoron, and against Imphal to the south, which builds on fermented fish, this is the driest and smokiest palate in the massif, and the one most dependent on the hearth rack.

**Staple grains and carbs:** Rice — sticky and non-sticky, from irrigated terrace and from jhum, Job's tears, grown on jhum plots and used for grain and for beer, Foxtail and finger millet on poorer slopes, Maize, and taro and yam as the tuber fallback

**Preservation:** Smoking on the hearth rack — pork, beef, fish and even chillies hung above the fire for months, Axone, the Sumi fermented soybean cake, wrapped and set above the hearth, Anishi, fermented and dried yam-leaf cakes, an Ao speciality, Bamboo shoot fermented in its own liquor in bamboo tubes or earthen pots, Sun-drying of fish, chilli and greens on rooftop racks, Salt boiled down from hill brine springs — historically the only local salt, traded in cakes

### Hearth-rack smoking
A bamboo or wooden rack is fixed permanently above the cooking fire and meat is left on it for weeks or months. This is not a flavouring step bolted onto a fresh-meat cuisine; in a place with no dry season long enough to sun-dry meat and no salt to spare, the rack was the only way to keep a pig that had to be killed in one day. Almost every signature dish begins with something taken down off it.
Also found in: Mizo–Kuki–Chin Hills, Khasi & Jaintia Hills, Siang & Adi Belt, Garo Hills

### Axone (akhuni) fermentation
Soybeans are boiled soft, wrapped in leaves and left in a warm place near the hearth for three to five days while Bacillus does the work, then either used wet or pressed into cakes, dried and smoked. Wet axone is pungent and used by the spoon; the dried cake keeps a year. Its function in the pot is the function of anchovy in a Mediterranean kitchen — a glutamate source, not a bean.
Also found in: Imphal Valley, Sikkim & Darjeeling Hills, Mizo–Kuki–Chin Hills, Khasi & Jaintia Hills

### Anishi
Yam and colocasia leaves are wilted, stacked, wrapped and left to ferment, then pounded, shaped into flat cakes and dried hard over the fire. Cooked with pork the cakes dissolve into a dark, faintly bitter body. It is the most locally confined of the region's ferments — an Ao technique that has barely travelled even within the hills.
Also found in: Patkai & Tirap Belt

### Bamboo-shoot fermentation
Young shoots are sliced, packed tight in a bamboo section or a pot and left to sour in their own liquor for weeks. Both the shoot and the liquor are used, the liquor as an acid the way a plains cook uses tamarind. Nagamese calls the product bastenga.
Also found in: Imphal Valley, Mizo–Kuki–Chin Hills, Sikkim & Darjeeling Hills, Tripura Hills & Plains

### One-pot boiling
Meat, greens, tubers and a ferment go into water together and are simmered until everything collapses into everything else. Galho is the named version. The method survives because it needs one vessel, one fire and no attention, which is what a household working a jhum plot from dawn can actually manage.
Also found in: Mizo–Kuki–Chin Hills, Garo Hills, Imphal Valley

### Rice-beer brewing
Sticky rice is cooked, cooled, mixed with a dried starter cake of yeast and mould and left to convert in a covered pot. Zutho, the Angami version, is drunk thick, cloudy and only mildly alcoholic, closer to a food than a drink; thutse is the Ao counterpart. The starter cake is a household inheritance, kept and re-propagated rather than bought.
Also found in: Brahmaputra Valley, Siang & Adi Belt, Mizo–Kuki–Chin Hills

## Dishes

Read the plate as a set of decisions about storage rather than about taste. Smoked meat because it had to keep; ferments because a hill garden yields in bursts; boiling because a single pot on a single fire feeds a house; chilli on the side because there is no fat in the dish to spread it. Pork is the central meat and the pig is a household animal fed on kitchen waste; beef is common in Christian-majority villages; the mithun is not everyday food but feast food, killed for merit and distributed by rule.

### Smoked pork with axone
The dish the whole region is identified by. Hearth-dried pork belly, wet or dried axone, raja mircha, ginger and water, simmered until the fat softens back. No oil is added at any point — the pork supplies it. Sumi in origin and now cooked everywhere.
Where to try: Any Kohima or Dimapur Naga kitchen; the Mao Market stalls sell the axone to make it.

### Pork with anishi
Ao household cooking. The dried yam-leaf cake is broken into the pot with smoked pork and dissolves into a dark, slightly bitter gravy that tastes of nothing else in India.

### Pork with bamboo shoot
Fermented shoot and its liquor cooked with fresh or smoked pork. The sourest of the standard dishes, and the one that reads most clearly as a Southeast Asian rather than an Indian preparation.

### Galho
Rice cooked down with greens, an axone or bamboo-shoot ferment and usually smoked meat, until it is between a porridge and a khichdi. The everyday one-pot meal, made vegetarian without any adjustment of method.

### Hinkejvu
An Angami dish of mixed boiled greens — cabbage, mustard leaf, colocasia stem and beans — barely seasoned, eaten to balance a plate that is otherwise smoke and salt. Proof that the vegetarian half of this kitchen is a real tradition and not an accommodation.

### Smoked beef with bamboo shoot
Beef is unremarkable here and is cooked by exactly the same logic as pork — dried on the rack, then simmered with a ferment. Widely sold in the Kohima and Dimapur markets.

### Axone chutney and raja mircha chutney
Roasted king chilli pounded with ginger, garlic, salt and either axone or dried fish. Served in a small quantity beside the food so each eater sets their own heat.

### Zutho and thutse
Rice beer, thick and cloudy, drunk from a bamboo mug. Zutho is Angami, thutse is Ao, and every community has its own name and starter. Historically it was the field drink, carried out to work in a gourd.

### Boiled chicken with herbs
Local chicken simmered with culantro, fish mint and Sichuan-pepper leaf and nothing else. It is the clearest demonstration of the aromatic system — every note in the bowl comes from a leaf.

### Fish in bamboo
River fish or terrace-field fish packed into a bamboo section with herbs and set at the edge of the fire until the tube chars. The bamboo both cooks and seasons; nothing is washed up afterwards.

### Silkworm pupae and hornet larvae
Eaten fried or boiled in season, and sold openly in the markets. Insects were an important protein source on slopes where large livestock is expensive to keep, and they remain a delicacy rather than a memory.

### Snails with bamboo shoot
Freshwater snails gathered from the terrace channels, boiled with fermented shoot. A by-product of wet terracing — the fields grow fish, snails and frogs alongside the rice.

### Perilla seed chutney
Roasted perilla pounded with chilli and salt into a coarse, oily paste. In a kitchen with no cooking fat, this is where the fat comes from.

### Naga-style rice
Plain boiled rice, sticky or not depending on the community, is not a background item here — it is the volume of the meal, and everything else is a small intense thing served next to it.

### Smoked pork with fermented bamboo and colocasia stem
The Lotha and Rengma version of the standard braise, using colocasia stem for texture. It thickens slightly on standing, which is the closest this cuisine comes to a gravy.

**Staples:** Rice, at every meal, Smoked pork and beef, Boiled seasonal greens, Axone, anishi and fermented bamboo shoot, Taro, yam and sweet potato

**Sweets:** Almost none. There is no indigenous sweet course, no dairy sweet tradition and very little sugar in the older kitchen; fruit closes a meal, and honey is the historical sweetener., Sweet potato and pumpkin, boiled, Seasonal wild fruit — plum, peach, passion fruit and Naga chilli-jam preserves in town shops

**Street food:** Smoked pork and axone plate meals at market stalls, Boiled maize and steamed sweet potato, Bamboo-steamed sticky rice, Roasted and smoked pork on skewers at Kohima's evening markets

**Drinks:** Zutho — Angami rice beer, Thutse — Ao rice beer, Black tea, drunk without milk in most villages, Tree-tomato juice

## Dress and textiles

A Naga shawl is a document. Colour bands, the number and placement of stripes, the presence of a painted or embroidered median panel, rows of cowries, tufts of dyed goat hair — each element records something the wearer or the wearer's household has done: a Feast of Merit given, an enemy met, a field cleared, a marriage made. Wearing a design one has not earned was a serious offence in the old order, and in some villages it still draws comment. Every one of these cloths is woven on a back-strap loin loom, which is tensioned against the weaver's own body and therefore cannot produce a panel wider than about forty centimetres — so a shawl is three or four narrow panels seamed together, and the stripe grammar has to be designed across the seams before a single thread is laid.

### Man's status shawl
The principal garment. Among the Ao, the tsüngkotepsu carries a median white band painted with mithun, tiger, elephant, spear and human heads, each figure standing for a specific achievement, and it could only be worn by a man who had both taken heads and given the Feasts of Merit. The Angami equivalent, loramhoushu, and the Sumi avikuho work the same way through band arrangement rather than painted figures. Among the Lotha the right to a further motif is earned Feast by Feast, so a man's shawl can be read as a count.
Worn by: Men
Worn for: Feasts, festivals, funerals, public office

### Woman's wrap skirt
A short, tightly wrapped skirt woven in stripes specific to the community and often to the clan. Angami, Ao, Lotha, Sumi and Chakhesang skirts are immediately distinguishable to anyone from the hills and indistinguishable to almost everyone else.
Worn by: Women
Worn for: Everyday and ceremonial

### Warrior's kilt
A black cotton kilt with rows of cowrie shells stitched along it. The rows are not decoration; they were a claim about the wearer's record, and the number was not left to the wearer to decide.
Worn by: Men
Worn for: Ceremonial

### Headgear
Cane or bamboo helmets set with boar tusk, bear hair, goat hair dyed red, and hornbill tail feathers. The hornbill feather was the most restricted element of the whole costume, and the bird's scarcity now means most festival headgear uses dyed substitutes.
Worn by: Men
Worn for: Festivals and dance

### Everyday dress
Ordinary modern clothing, with the shawl kept for church, feast, funeral and public occasion. The shawl's survival is precisely because it was never everyday wear — it was always the garment of record.
Worn by: All
Worn for: Daily

### Chakhesang shawl (GI tag)
Warp-striped cotton shawls in a fixed repertoire of designs, woven on the loin loom by Chakhesang women. Registered as a geographical indication in 2017, on an application by the Chakhesang Women Welfare Society — the only Naga textile with the protection so far.

### Ao tsüngkotepsu
Red and black bands with a median white panel painted in tree sap and soot with the figures that record achievement. The painting, not the weaving, carries the meaning, and it was done by a specialist.

### Angami loramhoushu and lohe
The Angami repertoire runs from plain white and black everyday cloths to heavily restricted status shawls; the difference between two of them can be a single band, and everyone in the village can read it.

### Sumi avikuho
A Sumi shawl whose band structure and colour placement mark rank and entitlement rather than taste.

### Lotha and Rengma shawls
Series in which each successive Feast of Merit given by a household entitles it to an additional design element, so the cloth accumulates the family's record over a lifetime.

### Konyak and Phom cloths
Bolder, wider-banded work from the northern ridges, worn with brass, bead and boar-tusk ornament rather than with fine weave detail.

**Jewellery:** Multi-strand carnelian, glass and shell bead necklaces, traded up from the plains for centuries, Brass head pendants worn by Konyak men, once tied to the head-taking record, Boar tusk collars and armlets, Cowrie-worked belts and baldrics, Cane leggings and armlets, worn tight from ankle to knee, Beaten brass and silver ear ornaments

## Arts and artisanal heritage

### War dance — tribal
Lines of men in full shawl and headgear advancing with dao and spear to a shouted call-and-response and a stamped rhythm, with a leader's cry answered by the group. Every community has its own version and they are not interchangeable; the differences are in the footwork and the shout, not the costume.

### Feast of Merit and stone-pulling songs — ritual
A household that had accumulated grain and mithun could give a graded series of feasts to the whole village, earning the right to new shawl designs, house horns and carved posts. The pulling of a memorial stone or a log drum into the village was done as a mass rhythmic haul with its own song cycle. The institution redistributed surplus and converted it into status — a wealth-levelling machine with a textile receipt.

### Aoleang dance — tribal
Circling and line dances performed through the six days of the Konyak spring festival, the men in full ornament, the women in bead collars, with songs that mark the turn from sowing to waiting.

### Sekrenyi dances — ritual
The Angami purification festival's public half — processional singing and dance after the private household rites, with the young people's Thekra Hie day given over to song.

### Bamboo and pounding-table dances — folk
Rhythms taken from work — the paddy pounding table, the clash of bamboo — turned into set dances, in the same way as across the massif to the south.

### Polyphonic folk song
Naga singing is unusual in India for being genuinely polyphonic — two or more independent vocal lines, often with a held lower drone, rather than a melody with accompaniment. This is why four-part Baptist hymnody took root so completely from the late nineteenth century: the choral habit was already there, and the hymnal supplied notation for it.

### Li
The Chakhesang folk-song repertoire in Chokri — courtship, harvest, ancestry and lament, sung in interlocking parts and usually accompanied by the tati, a one-string bamboo-and-gourd fiddle. The Tetseo sisters of Phek have carried the form onto record and onto stage.

### The log drum
A whole tree trunk hollowed into a canoe shape, up to ten metres long, housed beside the morung and beaten with pounding sticks by several men. It was signalling equipment before it was music — different rhythms announced a death, a raid, a fire or a feast — and it is the largest single object in the material culture.

### Bamboo wind and reed instruments
Mouth organs, flutes, trumpets and the bamboo mouth harp, all cut locally. The Ao musician Moa Subong's bamhum, a bamboo wind instrument invented in the 2000s, is a rare modern addition to the family.

### Contemporary music
Nagaland runs one of India's densest live-music economies relative to population, with church-trained singers, a state music task force and the Hornbill Festival's rock contest as the annual clearing house.

### Morung recitation
The morung, the bachelors' dormitory, was the theatre as well as the school: genealogies, migration accounts, village histories and song cycles were transmitted orally there, at night, by elders to boys sleeping in the same building. When the institution declined the repertoire lost its venue, and most of what survives was written down between the 1920s and the 1970s.

### Festival tableau
Modern staged representation of village life — mock hunts, feast sequences, war dances — performed at Kisama and at community festivals. It is a genuine form with its own conventions, and it is not the same thing as the ritual it depicts.

### Loin-loom weaving (GI-worthy)
The foundation craft of the region, worked almost entirely by women at home. Only the Chakhesang shawl currently holds a geographical indication; the rest of the repertoire is unprotected, and machine-made copies of restricted designs are a standing grievance among weavers.
Material: Cotton, and now acrylic yarn
Technique: Back-strap tension loom — one end tied to a post, the other to a belt around the weaver's waist, tension set by leaning back. Warp-faced striping, supplementary weft for motifs, and hand-seaming of narrow panels into a shawl.

### Chakhesang shawl weaving (GI registered)
Registered as a geographical indication in 2017 on an application by the Chakhesang Women Welfare Society — the first and so far only Naga textile to be protected.
Material: Cotton
Technique: Warp-faced loin-loom weaving to a fixed repertoire of striped designs.

### Wood carving (GI-worthy)
Morung and village-gate carving in mithun heads, hornbills, tigers, warriors and human figures, in a flattened frontal style. Konyak carving is the most sought after, and the trade has moved to portable pieces for buyers.
Material: Hardwood
Technique: Adze and chisel carving of house posts, morung facades, doors and figures.

### Bamboo and cane work (GI-worthy)
Baskets graded by function — head-load carrying baskets with a tumpline, grain stores, fish traps, shields, rain shields, chair frames — plus the cane leggings worn as ornament. The Diezephe craft village near Chumoukedima is the organised cluster.
Material: Bamboo, cane
Technique: Split-and-plait construction without nails or glue.

### Naga king chilli (GI registered)
Naga Mircha holds a geographical indication registered to the state's horticulture department. It was certified in 2007 as the hottest chilli then measured, at over a million Scoville units, and cultivator groups have since been authorised as registered users of the tag.
Material: Capsicum chinense
Technique: Sun-dried, smoked over the hearth, or made into paste and pickle.

### Blacksmithing
The dao — a heavy single-edged blade used to clear jhum, butcher, build a house and, historically, to fight — is the one tool a household cannot do without, and village smiths still make and re-temper them.
Material: Iron
Technique: Forge, anvil and water quench, with a bamboo or hide double-piston bellows.

### Bead and brass ornament
Old bead strings were high-value property, exchanged as bride-price and inherited. The brass head pendants of the Konyak are the most recognisable single ornament in the region.
Material: Carnelian, glass and shell beads; brass
Technique: Stringing, lost-wax and beaten brass work.

### Naga tree tomato and Naga cucumber (GI registered)
Both hold geographical indications — the tree tomato registered in 2015, the cucumber in 2021, both on applications by the regional agricultural marketing corporation. They are the region's other two protected products alongside the chilli and the Chakhesang shawl.
Material: Cyphomandra betacea; local cucumber landrace
Technique: Jhum-plot cultivation without irrigation.

## Folk songs

### Li (Chokri (Chakhesang))
Love, separation, the ancestors and the year's labour, sung in interlocking parts with the tati fiddle.
Sung at: Courtship, harvest, mourning, work
Carried into recorded music by the Tetseo sisters of Phek, who sing it in the original Chokri.

### Field-clearing and pounding songs (All Naga languages)
Songs that set the tempo of collective work. The rhythm is functional — the group swings the dao or the pestle to it — and the text is usually teasing or competitive.
Sung at: Jhum clearing, weeding, paddy pounding

### Morung night songs (All Naga languages)
Genealogy, migration, village founding and the deeds of named men, transmitted from elders to boys in the building they slept in. This was the region's history syllabus.
Sung at: Nights in the bachelors' dormitory

### Feast of Merit songs (All Naga languages)
Praise of the giver and of the mithun, and the counting-out of what the household has given the village.
Sung at: When a household gave a feast, and at stone-pulling

### Aoleang songs (Konyak)
Spring, the completed sowing, courtship, and the year ahead.
Sung at: Aoleang Monyu, early April

### Tokhu Emong songs (Lotha)
Thanksgiving, reconciliation between households, and the licence of a week without work.
Sung at: Post-harvest, early November

### Naga hymnody (Ao, Angami, Sumi, Lotha, Konyak and others)
Four-part hymns translated into each language from the late nineteenth century. They now function as folk repertoire — sung at home and at gravesides, and often the only music a whole village knows in unison.
Sung at: Church, funerals, Christmas

## Dialect and oral traditions

There is no Naga language. There are somewhere between twenty and sixty of them depending on where a linguist draws the line between language and dialect, all Tibeto-Burman, and they are not mutually intelligible — an Ao speaker and an Angami speaker have no more shared vocabulary than a Bengali speaker and a Tamil speaker. They also do not belong to a single sub-branch: the Konyak group of the northern ridges is more closely related to Bodo and Garo than to Angami. Into that gap moved Nagamese, a creole whose vocabulary is overwhelmingly Assamese and whose grammar is not, and which is now the language of the market, the bus, the police station and much of the church. Nobody's ancestors spoke it and almost everybody uses it.

### Angami (Tenyidie) — Tibeto-Burman, Angami–Pochuri
The Kohima-area language, tonal and written in Roman script, and the only Naga language taught to degree level at a university. Tenyidie is the name its speakers prefer for it.

### Ao — Tibeto-Burman, Ao group
Two mutually difficult varieties, Chungli and Mongsen, in adjacent villages of the same people. Chungli became the literary standard because the first mission press worked in it.

### Sumi — Tibeto-Burman, Angami–Pochuri
The Zunheboto language; also written as Sema in older colonial records, a spelling its speakers reject.

### Lotha — Tibeto-Burman, Ao group
Wokha district; closer to Ao than to Angami despite the geography suggesting otherwise.

### Konyak — Tibeto-Burman, Northern Naga (Konyak–Bodo–Garo)
The northern ridges, continuing across the frontier. Village varieties diverge sharply, and the group's deeper relatives are the Bodo–Garo languages of the plains, not its Naga neighbours.

### Chokri and Khezha (Chakhesang) — Tibeto-Burman, Angami–Pochuri
Two languages inside one community name. Chakhesang is itself a compound coined from Chokri, Khezha and Sangtam elements — a modern collective identity built over older separate ones.

### Tangkhul — Tibeto-Burman, Tangkhulic
The most internally divergent of them all: adjacent Tangkhul villages can be unintelligible to each other, and the Hunphun variety of Ukhrul functions as the common standard.

### Zeliangrong (Zeme, Liangmai, Rongmei) — Tibeto-Burman, Zeme group
Three closely related languages whose speakers adopted a joint name in the twentieth century, spread across the western and southern edge of the ridge system.

### Nagamese — Assamese-lexified creole
Assamese vocabulary, simplified verb morphology, no grammatical gender, and syntax influenced by the Tibeto-Burman languages of its speakers. It grew in the foothill markets and army lines of the nineteenth century and has since become a first language for some town-born children.

#### Indigenous terminology

- **Morung**: The bachelors' dormitory — sleeping house, school, guardhouse, carving workshop and archive. Called ariju by the Ao, kichüki by the Angami, champo by the Lotha and ban by the Konyak. Boys entered at about ten and left on marriage, and the building's facade carried the village's carved record.
- **Mithun**: Bos frontalis, a semi-domesticated bovine kept in forest rather than in a byre, identified by ear-marks, never milked and never used for draught. It is the unit of wealth, bride-price, fine and feast, and the state animal of both Nagaland and Arunachal.
- **Genna / kenyü**: A ritual prohibition, and by extension a day on which the whole village is forbidden to work or to admit outsiders. The gates were shut and the fields left alone; travellers arriving on a genna day were, and sometimes still are, turned back.
- **Khel**: A village ward, each with its own gate, morung and often its own founding clan. Large Angami villages are federations of khels, not single settlements, and the word itself is a borrowing from Assamese.
- **Angh**: The hereditary Konyak chief. The greater Anghs held authority over clusters of villages, and some of those clusters straddle the international frontier.
- **Feast of Merit**: A graded series of public feasts a household could give to the whole village, each step earning it new rights — shawl designs, house horns, a carved post, a memorial stone. It converted grain and mithun into standing, and it dispersed surplus rather than accumulating it.
- **Dao**: The heavy single-edged blade that clears jhum, splits bamboo, butchers a pig and builds a house. Its shape differs by community and can be identified on sight.
- **Jhum**: Rotational cultivation: slash, dry, burn, crop for two or three years, then leave the plot to regrow. Sustainable at a twenty-year cycle and increasingly not, because the cycle has shortened.
- **Axone / akhuni**: Fermented soybean, Sumi in origin. Pungent enough that its use in shared urban kitchens outside the region has repeatedly become a dispute in its own right.
- **Anishi**: Fermented, pounded and fire-dried yam-leaf cakes, an Ao preparation with no close equivalent elsewhere.
- **Zutho**: Angami rice beer, thick and lightly alcoholic. The Ao thutse and the Sumi and Lotha equivalents are distinct brews with distinct starters.
- **Raja mircha**: The king chilli. Called Naga mircha in the GI registration and bhut jolokia in Assam — one fruit, three names, and a long argument about which of them is the original.

#### Sayings

- "Kiman daam?" — literally: How much price? — The Nagamese market phrase, straight out of Assamese. That the one sentence understood on every ridge is a bargaining question, and that it is nobody's mother tongue, is the plainest statement of what Nagamese is for and where it grew.
- "Amikhan" — literally: We, us — Nagamese first-person plural — an Assamese pronoun carrying a plural suffix that Assamese itself does not use this way. The construction shows the language's whole method: plains vocabulary, hill grammar.
- "A shawl must be earned before it is worn" — Not a proverb so much as a rule, stated in some form in every community: design is entitlement, and wearing what one has not earned was punishable.
- "The village decides" — The operating principle of a society with no kings over most of its area. Village councils held final authority on land, feud, marriage and admission, and in much of the region they still hold it on land.

## Places

### Kohima War Cemetery, Kohima
Terraced graves on Garrison Hill, on the ground where the Japanese advance into India was halted between April and June 1944 — part of the fighting ran across the tennis court of the Deputy Commissioner's bungalow, and the court's outline is marked in the cemetery. The memorial carries the Kohima epitaph: "When you go home, tell them of us and say, for your tomorrow, we gave our today."
Best time: October–April

### Khonoma, Kohima
An Angami village of terraced rice fields on a defensible spur, with a fort gate, three khels and more than twenty named rice varieties on its terraces. In 1998 the village council banned hunting and logging across its land and set up the Khonoma Nature Conservation and Tragopan Sanctuary — a conservation decision taken by a village, not by a state.
Best time: October–April
Getting there: 20 km west of Kohima by road.

### Dzukou Valley, Kohima
A high bowl at about 2,450 m carpeted in dwarf bamboo that is cropped short by frost and grazing, so the valley reads as lawn. Its lily flowers in June and July. Access is on foot from Viswema or Jakhama, and the valley is also claimed and cared for from the Manipur side.
Best time: June–September for the lily; October–November for clear weather

### Japfü peak, Kohima
At 3,048 m the second-highest point in Nagaland, with a rhododendron on its slopes recorded in the 1990s as the tallest of its kind. The climb is done overnight from Kigwema to reach the summit at dawn.
Best time: November–March

### Mokokchung and Ungma, Mokokchung
The Ao town and, three kilometres from it, Ungma — the largest and by tradition the oldest Ao village, from which many others were founded. Ao village government runs on a rotating council of clan elders, which is why the town has an unusually dense civic life.

### Mon and the Konyak villages, Mon
The Konyak country: Angh houses with carved posts and hanging log drums, brass ornament, and the last generation of facially tattooed men, whose marks record a practice that ended in the middle of the twentieth century.
Best time: October–April

### Longwa, Mon
A large Konyak village sitting directly on the international boundary — the line runs through the Angh's house, and his authority extends over villages on both sides of it. The village is the clearest single illustration that this cultural region is older than the border drawn across it.
Getting there: About 42 km from Mon town by hill road.

### Shirui Kashong, Ukhrul
The Tangkhul peak on whose upper slopes the Shirui lily grows and nowhere else in the wild. It flowers in late May and June and has never been successfully naturalised elsewhere, which is why the village runs an annual festival around it.
Best time: May–June

### Saramati, Kiphire
The highest point in the region at 3,841 m, standing on the frontier watershed itself. The approach is from Thanamir village, and the climb needs permits and local guides.
Best time: October–March

### Doyang reservoir and Pangti, Wokha
The autumn roost of the Amur falcon, which crosses from Siberia to southern Africa and stops here in enormous numbers. In 2012 tens of thousands were being netted; the village councils of Pangti and its neighbours banned the hunting outright, and the roost is now guarded by the same people who once trapped it.
Best time: October–November

### Kachari ruins, Dimapur, Dimapur
Rows of carved monoliths in the foothill plain, left by the Dimasa Kachari kingdom before the sixteenth century. They belong to a plains-edge state, not to the hill villages, and mark the point where the two worlds met and traded.

### Naga Heritage Village, Kisama, Kohima
A purpose-built site 12 km from Kohima where each recognised community maintains a morung and house in its own architectural style. It is a constructed display, built in 2000 for the Hornbill Festival, and it is the easiest place to see the region's architectural differences side by side.

### Diezephe craft village, Chumoukedima
A weaving and wood-carving cluster on the foothill edge near Dimapur, organised as a working craft village rather than a showroom.

### Touphema, Kohima
A community-owned tourist village built in traditional Angami style and run by the village itself, with the revenue going to the village rather than to an operator.

## Festivals

- **Hornbill Festival** (1–10 December): A state-organised showcase held at the Naga Heritage Village, Kisama, since 2000, at which each recognised community presents dance, song, food and craft from its own morung on the site. It is a modern event and not a village calendar festival — it was built to give a fractured set of traditions one shared platform and a tourist season, and it has succeeded well enough that it is now the region's best-known date.
- **Sekrenyi** (Late February, over about ten days): The Angami purification festival. Men draw water from the village well before dawn on the ritual day and sprinkle it with a formula; households sacrifice, restrictions are observed, and the young people's day of song, Thekra Hie, follows. It cleanses the year and re-sets relations inside the khel.
- **Moatsu** (First week of May): The Ao festival marking the end of sowing — the gap between the work of planting and the work of harvest. Meat and rice beer are prepared, and the sangpangtu fire is lit for men and women to sit around together in ranked order.
- **Tuluni** (8 July): The Sumi mid-year festival of plenty, held when the granary is at its fullest before the harvest. Rice beer is shared from a single bamboo cup between betrothed couples and between households, and the festival's name is the name of the drink.
- **Aoleang Monyu** (First week of April, six days): The Konyak new year, at the turn of spring after sowing. Six named days, each with its own work — gathering, killing, cooking, dancing, visiting — with the fullest display of Konyak ornament in the year.
- **Tokhu Emong** (Early November): The Lotha post-harvest festival: a week in which work stops, debts and quarrels are settled between households, and food gathered through the year is eaten down.
- **Ngada** (Late November): The Rengma harvest festival, closing the agricultural year with feasting and the remembrance of the household's dead.
- **Monyu** (Early April): The Phom spring festival, marked with log-drum beating and with gifts of food carried between married daughters and their parents' households.
- **Tsükhenyie** (May): The Chakhesang festival of purification and blessing for the growing crop, held before the weeding.
- **Christmas and the church calendar** (December): Practically the largest observance in most villages. Choir competitions, night-long carol rounds and community feasts run for a fortnight, and the four-part hymn repertoire is at its most audible.

## People

- **Temsula Ao** (1945–2022) — Poet, short-story writer and ethnographer: Wrote the region's oral tradition into English prose and verse, including "These Hills Called Home", and published an ethnographic study of Ao oral literature. Received the Padma Shri in 2007 and the Sahitya Akademi Award in 2013.
- **Easterine Kire** (b. 1959) — Novelist and poet: Published the first Naga novel in English, "A Naga Village Remembered", built on the history of Khonoma, and won the Hindu Prize in 2015 for "When the River Sleeps". Her work is the principal literary route into Angami village society.
- **Talimeren Ao** (1918–1998) — Footballer and physician: Captained India at the 1948 London Olympic Games and practised medicine in Assam and Nagaland afterwards. The stadium at Kohima and a generation of local sport are named for him.
- **Machihan Sasa** — Potter: Tangkhul master of Longpi pottery from the Nungbi villages of Ukhrul, who kept the wheel-less serpentinite-and-clay technique working and trained a generation in it. Awarded the Padma Shri in 2024.
- **Moa Subong** — Musician and instrument maker: Ao musician who devised the bamhum, a bamboo wind instrument played by humming into it — a rare instance of a new instrument entering the region's family rather than leaving it.
- **The Tetseo Sisters** — Musicians: Chakhesang siblings from Phek who perform Li, the Chokri folk-song repertoire, with the tati fiddle, and who took the form onto recordings and national stages without translating it out of its language.
- **Chekrovolü Swüro** — Archer: Chakhesang archer who competed for India at the 2012 Olympic Games — the region's traditional bow culture converted into a modern competitive discipline.
- **Edwin W. Clark** (1830–1913) — Missionary and linguist: American Baptist who settled in the Ao hills in the 1870s and produced the first printed material in Ao, including a dictionary. The choice of the Chungli variety for the press is the reason it became the Ao literary standard.
- **J. H. Hutton and J. P. Mills** (1885–1968; 1890–1960) — Administrator-ethnographers: Wrote the monograph series — "The Angami Nagas", "The Sema Nagas", "The Lhota Nagas", "The Ao Nagas", "The Rengma Nagas" — that remains the densest single record of the pre-Christian village order. They are colonial documents and are read as such, but nothing since has matched their detail.

## Freedom fighters

## Shops and premises

- **Mao Market**, Kohima: Axone, anishi, smoked pork and beef, wild greens, bamboo shoot, king chilli The daily market where the region's pantry is actually bought. Ferments are sold by the leaf-wrapped parcel and smoked meat by the piece, and the greens change completely every three weeks.
- **Hong Kong Market and Naga Bazaar**, Dimapur: Hill produce brought down to the plains edge, plus imported goods from the eastern trade The foothill market where the hills and the Brahmaputra plain have always met and exchanged.
- **Nagaland Handloom and Handicrafts emporium**, Kohima: Loin-loom shawls, bamboo and cane work, wood carving Worth using because provenance matters here — a shawl carries an entitlement, and buying a restricted design from an unattributed source is a real discourtesy.
- **Diezephe craft village**, Chumoukedima, near Dimapur: Weaving and wood carving bought from the workshops themselves
- **Khonoma village homestays**, Khonoma: Village-run accommodation, terrace walks and local food Revenue goes to households and to the village council, which also runs the sanctuary.
- **Mokokchung town market**, Mokokchung: Anishi, Ao ferments, seasonal insects and river fish

## How to reach

**By air:** Dimapur Airport (DMU); Jorhat Airport (JRH); Dibrugarh Airport (DIB)

**By rail:** Dimapur (DMV); Mariani Junction (MXN); Simaluguri Junction

**By road:** The Dimapur–Kohima–Imphal highway, the region's spine and its most-used road, Kohima–Wokha–Mokokchung–Tuensang–Mon, the long north-south hill road along the ridges, Kohima–Khonoma and Kohima–Viswema for the Dzukou and Japfü approaches, Sonari (Assam)–Tizit–Mon, the shortest way into the Konyak country, Imphal–Ukhrul for the Tangkhul highlands

**Getting around:** Shared Sumo and Bolero taxis running on fixed routes and leaving when full are the real public transport; fixed-route buses are thin and slow. Travel by daylight — landslides close hill roads without warning between May and September, and repairs are measured in days. Non-residents need an Inner Line Permit for Nagaland, obtainable online or at Dimapur and Kohima, and a separate permit for the hill districts of Manipur; foreign nationals must register on arrival.

## The small things

### A house in two countries
At Longwa in the Konyak ridges the international boundary runs straight through the Angh's house, and the household is locally described as eating on one side and sleeping on the other. The village predates the line by several centuries, and the Angh's authority still covers settlements on both sides of it.

### The loom sets the width of the shawl
A back-strap loom is tensioned by the weaver leaning away from a fixed post, so the widest panel one person can beat is roughly the span of her arms — about forty centimetres. Every Naga shawl is therefore three or four panels seamed together, and the stripe pattern has to be planned to survive being cut apart and rejoined. The design grammar is a consequence of the machine.

### Alder that fertilises a burnt field
Khonoma's farmers pollard Alnus nepalensis at about two metres and let it regrow inside the cropping plot. The tree's root nodules fix nitrogen, its cut branches go back as mulch and firewood, and its shade does not shut out the crop — so the plot can be cropped for far longer than an ordinary jhum cycle allows. It is a soil-fertility technology, developed locally, that solves the exact problem shortened fallows create.

### A million birds and a village vote
Amur falcons roosting at Doyang were being netted in tens of thousands in 2012. The village councils of Pangti and its neighbours banned the trapping outright, appointed watchers from among the former hunters, and the roost has been protected since. The decision was taken by villages, not imposed on them, which is why it held.

### Salt from a hillside
Before plains salt was cheap and reachable, Naga villages boiled brine from hill springs down to cakes in wide pans. Salt was scarce and expensive, which is exactly why the preservation system is built on smoke and fermentation rather than on salting.

### The mithun is not livestock
Bos frontalis is grazed loose in the forest, identified by ear-marks rather than by fences, never milked and never yoked. It exists to be given away — as bride-price, as a fine, and above all as the animal killed at a Feast of Merit. It is a currency with hooves, and it is the state animal of both Nagaland and Arunachal.

### A creole nobody grew up with
Nagamese takes its vocabulary from Assamese and its structure largely from the Tibeto-Burman languages of its speakers. It grew in nineteenth-century foothill markets, spread because no Naga language could serve as neutral ground, and is now used in church, court, market and police station. For a growing number of town-born children it is becoming a first language, which changes it from a pidgin into something with native speakers.

### English by necessity
Nagaland adopted English as its sole official language in 1967. With no shared indigenous language and no appetite for adopting a neighbour's, the outside language was the only one nobody had to concede anything to.

### A drum that carried messages
The log drum is a single hollowed trunk, sometimes over ten metres long, dragged into the village by the whole community as a ritual event and then housed by the morung. Beaten by several men with pounding sticks, its rhythms were a code — a death, a fire, a raid, a returning party — audible across valleys where a shout is not.

### Chilli on the side, not in the pot
Naga cooking uses almost no fat, and capsaicin is fat-soluble. Put a king chilli into an oil-less boiled dish and the heat stays concentrated and uneven; served whole or as a pounded chutney beside the food, each eater sets the dose. The habit is a solution to a chemistry problem, not a display of toughness.

### Head-taking, stated plainly
Raiding for heads was part of the older village order across much of the region, tied to fertility ritual, status and defence between independent villages. It was suppressed under colonial administration and gave way further under mission influence, ending in most areas by the 1940s. What remains is the visual record — facial tattoos on the last surviving Konyak men who earned them, brass head pendants, figures painted on the Ao shawl — worn now as heritage rather than as claim.

### The morung became the church youth group
The dormitory was school, barracks, workshop and archive. As Christianity spread from the 1870s the institution emptied, but its functions did not vanish — the age-set organisation, the choir, the collective labour and the night-time transmission of a shared repertoire moved into the church. The Hornbill Festival then rebuilt the morung at Kisama as architecture, which is a third life for the same building.

## Cross-border corridors

### The Naga Continuum (crosses an international border)
Spans: Nagaland, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Myanmar

The whole institutional set — morung, log drum, Feast of Merit, mithun wealth, loin-loom status textiles and the dao — carried by peoples whose villages run continuously across the Patkai watershed. Konyak and Wancho villages face each other across the Arunachal line; Tangkhul, Mao, Poumai, Maram and Zeliangrong country lies south of Kohima; Nocte and Tangsa continue north; and Konyak, Tangkhul and Khiamniungan settlements continue east into the Sagaing hills.

Divergence: Each administrative unit produced a different written standard and a different script politics: Roman orthographies and Baptist mission literature on the Indian side, Burmese-influenced schooling east of the watershed, and Nagamese as a link language only where Assam's markets reached. The textiles and the kitchen changed far less than the writing did.

### The Bamboo and Smoked-Pork Corridor (crosses an international border)
Spans: Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Tripura, Myanmar

One kitchen grammar across the whole massif: pork or beef dried on a rack above the hearth, fermented bamboo shoot as the acid, a Bacillus-fermented soybean as the savoury base, cooking by boiling in one pot or inside a bamboo tube, and almost no added fat or ground spice.

Divergence: The soybean ferment is axone among the Sumi, hawaijar in the Imphal valley, bekang among the Mizo, kinema in Sikkim and Darjeeling and tungrymbai in the Khasi hills — the same organism, five names and five textures. Garo and Khasi cooking adds an ash-alkali step the Naga kitchen mostly does without; the Imphal valley substitutes fermented fish for fermented soybean as the dominant note; Nagas alone build a dish on fermented yam leaf.

### The Nagamese Link
Spans: Nagaland, Assam

An Assamese-lexified creole running the length of the trade routes between the Brahmaputra foothills and the ridges — market vocabulary, verb forms stripped of Assamese inflection, and a plural marker used in a way Assamese itself does not.

Divergence: In Assam it stays a trade jargon used with hill traders; in the hills it became the everyday language of inter-community life, of the state's own institutions and of the Nagamese-language Bible and hymnal — and it is acquiring native speakers, which Assam's version never has.

### The Feast of Merit Belt (crosses an international border)
Spans: Nagaland, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Myanmar

The graded public feast that converts household surplus into permanent rights — carved house horns, a memorial stone, a new shawl design — found from the Chin hills through the Naga ridges to the Tirap belt.

Divergence: In the Naga hills the reward was overwhelmingly textile, so status became portable and survived the end of the feasts themselves; further south the reward was more often architectural, and vanished with the house.

### The Foothill Exchange
Spans: Nagaland, Assam

An old trade in which hill villages sent down cotton, chilli, ginger, wax, tree tomato, cane and forest produce and took back salt, dried fish, iron, brass and beads. The carnelian and glass bead strings that are heirloom wealth in the hills were manufactured in the plains and beyond.

Divergence: The plains end of the trade dissolved into ordinary markets; the hill end kept the goods as valuables, so an object that was a commodity in Assam became inheritable property on the ridge.

## Sources

- [Department of Tourism, Nagaland — official portal](https://tourism.nagaland.gov.in/)
- [Geographical Indications Registry, India — registered GI list](https://ipindia.gov.in/registered-gls.htm)
- [Census of India — language and population tables](https://censusindia.gov.in/)
- [Sangeet Natak Akademi — documentation of Naga performing traditions](https://sangeetnatak.gov.in/)
- [Commonwealth War Graves Commission — Kohima War Cemetery](https://www.cwgc.org/)
- [Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts — northeast documentation](https://ignca.gov.in/)
- [Wildlife Institute of India](https://wii.gov.in/)

_Last reviewed 2026-08-30._